What function do spatial cognitive maps perform?

In case of humans and animals:

•Spatial memory is used for identifying and recognizing the features of their environment e.g. cats find their way back home.

•Spatial memory is used for finding important goal objects in their environment.
•Spatial memory is used for planning route through an environment.
 

Use of Cognitive Maps by Animals
•Birds coming back to the same place and point after a season
•Pigeons carrying messages
•Cats coming back home even after a number of days have passed 

Use of cognitive maps by humans
•Cognitive maps of surroundings, primarily based on particular landmarks are developed by people too.
•In their initial encounter with a new environment, they develop cognitive maps based upon specific paths.
•As the familiarity with the environment increase, “abstract cognitive maps” are developed i.e., overall conception of environment is developed.
•Used by interior designers for planning space and arrangements in the absence of any actual objects.

Observational Learning
Ask Yourself
•Will people be behaving the same way as they do now, if they had never seen another human being?
•How do toddlers learn to wear shoes?
•Why do small girls like to wear lipsticks?
•How does one reach for the ignition in a car when trying to drive the very first time on his own?
•How do many youngsters start smoking?
•Why do people dress up and talk like famous actors?

Defining observational Learning
Imitation is an advanced animal behavior whereby an individual observes another's behavior and replicates it.
•Observational learning refers to learning through observation of others’ behavior; or as a result of modeling
•According to Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major portion of our learning is based upon learning by observation.
•It is the main component of social-learning theory in which a person makes changes in his own behavior by watching/or imitating others i.e., a model/ a super star/favorite personality or a cartoon character.
•Effective in acquiring skills, attitudes, and beliefs simply by watching other 

Observational learning may lead to learningnegative as well as positive behaviors!!!!

•  Bandura (1965) and others have demonstrated that we learn from observing models but we don't necessarily copy them. In an early study, children watched a film of an adult hitting and kicking a large punching bag type of doll. Some of the children saw the adult rewarded for the aggressiveness, others saw the adult punished, and still otherssaw no rewards or punishment afterwards. When placed in a similar situation as the adult with the doll, the children were more aggressive themselves if they had seen an adult rewarded for being aggressive. If they had seen the adult punished, they were less aggressive, even though they could imitate the adult perfectly. They had learned behavior by observing and learned to monitor and control their behavior considering if it might lead to rewards or punishment. All parents observe this phenomenon in their growing children. 

Modeling has also been used as a form of psychological intervention or treatment. Children with a fear of dogs (Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove, 1967) or snakes(Bandura, Blanchard, and Ritter, 1969) were shown a model that was not afraid and approached and handled the animal. The children learned to be less afraid. Although observing an effective model in a film is helpful, seeing a live model works better. Even more effective is watching a live model first and then participating by approaching and safely handling the feared animal.

Steps in Observational Learning
•The most critical features of another person’s (model’s) behavior are paid attention to and perceived.
•The behavior is remembered; stored in memory.
•The action is reproduced.
•The person is motivated to learn and practice the behavior; successes are reinforced and failures punished.
 

When is observational learning the best approach to learning???
•In learning those skills where shaping is not appropriate, trial and error impossible and classical conditioning irrelevant, for example:
o Flying airplanes as a pilot
o Performing surgery

Who is a good model???
•The one who is rewarded for his behavior
•Those punished for their behavior will not usually be copied.
•Socially significant models (e.g. actors or super models used in advertisements)
•Successful people
•Glamorous people
•Good communicators
 

Applications of Observational Learning in Real Life Situations
Observational learning can be, and has been, used successfully for:
•Overcoming fears in children
•Assertiveness training
•Treating fear of medical treatment and surgery
•Learning sports and athletics
•Learning new skills, like swimming
•Classroom situation: good performers and high achievers are rewarded so that they act as models for other children
 

The following behaviors are also learned through observation of others performing the same act:
•  Learning gender roles
•  Adopting new fashions
•  Starting smoking
•  Drug abuse
•  Drinking alcohol
•  Violence and aggression learnt and displayed by children